Just Culture in Nursing

Just Culture in Nursing JUST CULTURE: An Approach that is Right and Just for the Philippine Nursing System Bernardo Oliber Alconis Arde Jr., RN, MAN Nursing has always been regarded as a â€Å"humanistic science† since it has evolved from experience to science. Anchored by altruistic motives, nurses perform nursing care to patients with tact and prudence; otherwise patients’ safety is jeopardized. Hence, it is safe to say that nursing should be a ‘perfect discipline’ – an arena where mistake is never an option. While there are great efforts by the nursing community to pursue perfection by its evidence-based approach, the fact still stand that humans are fallible. And by human nature, even if nurses make the best choices of care for their patients, other factors aside from these choices may still make them vulnerable to committing errors. If nurses’ infallibility can never be attained, how then can it be managed? Traditionally, healthcare’s culture has held individuals accountable for all errors or mishaps that befall patients under their care. When errors occur, the immediate solution is to blame an individual for the error. Blaming individuals creates a culture of fear, discourages open reporting and discussion of errors, and does little to prevent future errors or improve the safety of the health care system (NCBON, 2011). According to Leape (2000), as cited by American Nurses Association (2010) these approaches that focus on punishing individuals instead of changing systems provide strong incentives for people to report only those errors they cannot hide. Thus, a punitive approach shuts off the information that is needed to identify faulty systems and create safer ones. In a punitive system, no one learns from their mistakes. Many observers attribute underreporting to the punitive (‘‘name and blame’’) approach that many healthcare organizations have taken with regard to safety incidents. By inculcating a sense of fear, the punitive approach discourages reporting and, in doing so, prevents organizational learning and improvement (Barach Small, 2000; Blegen et al., 2004; Kadzielski Martin, 2002; Kingston, Evans, Smith, Berry, 2004; Manasse, Eturnbull, Diamond, 2002; Wakefield et al., 2001, 1999). As an alternative to this traditional system, application of a model which is widely used in aviation industry known as the Just Culture Model seeks to create an environment that encourages individuals to report mistakes so that the precursors to errors can be better understood in order to fix the system issues (ANA, 2010). Just Culture, as defined in aviation industry, is a culture in which front line operators are not punished for actions, omissions or decisions taken by them that are commensurate with the experience and training, but where gross negligence, wilful violations and destructive acts are not tolerated (Eurocontrol, 2014). Reason (n.d), as quoted by Skybrary (n.d) claimed that it is an atmosphere of trust in which people are encouraged, even rewarded for proving essential safety-related information but in which they are also clear about where the line must be drawn between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. In 1997, as mentioned by ANA (2010), John Reason wrote that a Just Culture creates an atmosphere of trust, encouraging and rewarding people for providing essential safety-related information. A Just Culture is also explicit about what constitutes acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Therefore a Just Culture is the middle component between patient safety and a safety culture (Reason, 1997). However, the term â€Å"Just Culture† was first used in a 2001 report by David Marx (Marx, 2001), a report which popularized the term in the patient safety lexicon (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, n.d.). Further he argues that discipline needs to be tied to the behavior of individuals and the potential risks their behavior presents more than the actual outcome of their actions (Marx, 2001). In the health care arena, Medscape (n.d) emphasized that Just Culture recognizes that human error and faulty systems can cause a mistake and encourages an investigation of what led to the error instead of an immediate rush to blame a person. A just culture, expert say, is a ‘‘non-punitive’’ environment in which individuals can report errors or close calls without fear of reprimand, rebuke, or reprisal (Blegen et al., 2004; Karadeniz Cakmakci, 2002; Kingston et al., 2004; Pizzi, Goldfarb, Nash, 2001; Wakefield et al., 1999; Wild Bradley, 2005). The concept of a fair and just culture refers to the way an organization handles safety issues. Humans are fallible; they make mistakes. In a just culture, hazardous human behavior such as staff errors, near-misses and risky actions are identified and discussed openly in hopes of finding ways to improve processes and systems — not to identify and punish the individual (Pepe Cataldo, 2011). In the Philippines, where nurses face a lot of workplace-related issues such as understaffing, undue remuneration, and hostile employers to name a few, they become more vulnerable to making mistakes. With so much pressure at hand due to how these errors are addressed currently plus the fact that nurses are more often unappreciated, they may burnout putting the delivery of care at stake. This existing practice is opposed by the concept of Just Culture, where according to Pepe and Cataldo (2011), is a model that distinguishes among human error, at-risk behavior, reckless behavior, malicious willful violations and the corresponding levels of accountability. Moreover, just culture is not a â€Å"blame-free† approach. It is a strategy that gets into the root of the problem, whether it is a worker wilfully contributing to the error or the system providing inadequate support to the worker’s need. Furthermore, it is a system of justice that involves both investigatory action and disciplinary action. Hence, a â€Å"just culture† stands between a ‘‘blaming’’ or punitive culture, on the one hand, and a ‘‘no-blame’’ or ‘‘anything-goes’’ culture, on the other. This view reflects the connotation of balance typically associated with the terms ‘‘just’’ or ‘‘fair.’ (Weiner, Hobgood Lewis, 2007). It balances the need to learn from mistakes and the need to take disciplinary action where appropriate. In a setting where just culture is implemented, encouragement of error disclosure is emphasized through open communication. As stated in Skybrary (2014) the personnel is clear, that in the interest of safety, the organisation wants to know, at all times, about unsafe events, unsafe situations that have presented themselves or could arise. They are keen to step forward and speak up when they perceive a situation as dangerous, think of a procedure as risky, or any other issue in their daily tasks that they judge as potentially harmful and are yet without good remedy. This system makes sure the staffs are motivated to report and the trend must be maintained. Moreover, whenever there are reports, the organization assures that they are acknowledged, discussed properly and provided with appropriate feedbacks. When errors occur, the person who committed the error is not blamed instantly. He or she is not punished outright but rather a safety investigation is initiated to determine the proper disciplinary action. The organisation investigates why this error was made and what can be done to avoid them or to mitigate the effects for future operations. The workforce is protected as best as possible from negative consequences resulting from human error or subsequent investigations and in principle the organisation will defend and support people should external prosecutions or litigations target them. The organisation attempts to repair the situation as best as possible and restore the operations to normal. The organisation provides compensation for those that have experienced personal loss or damage. The organisation tries hard to prevent that same event from happening again. A case is not closed by condemning or finding the guilty one, but by discovering the underlying problems in the system, by rectifying this and by repairing the damages done (Skybrary, 2014). When the problem is discovered, rectified and repaired, the organisation then communicates the situation with confidentiality to all the members of the group. This dissemination intends not to humiliate somebody but rather provides a learning platform for everyone. In just culture, the error that has happened was seen not as something to be fixed but rather an opportunity of learning and ironing the system. It creates an environment of introspection while errors are discussed and collectively outlines improved policies, protocols and/or guidelines. It also shapes a venue for the enrichment of managerial competencies. Hence, it is an implicit claim of just culture that it is inevitable for practitioners to commit mistakes that even the most experienced individual is capable of making mistakes. It is also implied in just culture that punishment is not an assurance that workers will not be making mistakes and that perfecting a performance is impossible and can never be sustained. ANA (2010), in their position paper about this concept officially endorse the Just Culture concept as a strategy to reduce errors and promote patient safety in health care. In their efforts to endorse this â€Å"non-punitive† approach, they promote and disseminate information about the Just Culture concept in ANA publications, through constituent member associations, and ANA affiliated organizations. Hence, the feasibility of incorporating this approach in the present system in the Philippines must also be taken into consideration. However, the adopting organization must develop its own strategies in implementing just culture. It is because no single method fits all in applying the just culture. This concept, when used as an approach in improving the quality of care, must be contextualized depending on the acceptance and capability of the institution to implement this model. Once this approach is incorporated in the system, ANA (2010) encourages continued research into the effectiveness of the Just Culture concept in improving patient safety and employee performance outcomes. To this end, Just Culture might just be the absolute answer to the faulty system not only of nursing but might as well the entire Philippine Healthcare system. References Erickson, A. K. (2012, November 1). Step forward: Hospital journey to Just Culture. pharmacist.com. Retrieved May 28, 2014, from http://www.pharmacist.com/step-forward-hospitals’-journey-‘just-culture’ ANA. (n.d.). Just Culture. http://nursingworld.org/. Retrieved May 29, 2014, from http://nursingworld.org/psjustculture Brewer, K. (n.d.). How a Just Culture Can Improve Safety in Health Care. Medscape Log In. Retrieved May 30, 2014, from http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/746089_2 Building a Just Culture. (2014, January 8). SKYbrary . Retrieved May 30, 2014, from http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Building_a_Just_Culture Colorado Firecamp A Roadmap to a Just Culture. (n.d.). Colorado Firecamp A Roadmap to a Just Culture. Retrieved May 30, 2014, from http://coloradofirecamp.com/just-culture/index.htm Esarr Advisory Material/Guidance Document (EAM/GUI). (2006, March 31). Skybrary. Retrieved May 28, 2014, from . http://www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/235.pdf Eurocontrol Driving excellence in ATM performance. (n.d.). Just culture. Retrieved May 30, 2014, from https://www.eurocontrol.int/articles/just-culture Harbour, T. (n.d.). Just Environment: Command Climate, Leadership, and Error Forest Service Fire and Aviation Management: Becoming a Learning Culture. http://high-reliability.org/. Retrieved May 29, 2014, from http://high-reliability.org/files/Harbour_HRO_Abstract_Just_Culture.pdf Just Culture. (n.d.). SKYbrary . Retrieved May 30, 2014, from http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Just_Culture Just Culture Policy. (n.d.). Eurocontrol. Retrieved May 28, 2014, from http://www.eurocontrol.int/sites/default/files/publication/files/201209-just-culture-policy.pdf Marx, D. (n.d.). Patient Safety and the Just Culture . health.ny.gov. Retrieved May 29, 2014, from http://www.health.ny.gov/professionals/patients/patient_safety/conference/2007/docs/patient_safety_and_the_just_culture.pdf NCBON. (n.d.). Just Culture In Nursing Regulation . ncbon.com. Retrieved May 29, 2014, from http://www.ncbon.com/myfiles/downloads/cet-booklet.pdf Pepe, J., Cataldo, P. J. (2011). Log in. Manage Risk, Build a Just Culture. Retrieved August 10, 2014, from https://www.chausa.org/publications/health-progress/article/july-august-2011/manage-risk-build-a-just-culture WISE, D. (n.d.). Getting To Know Just Culture | Outcome Engenuitys Just Culture Community. Outcome Engenuitys Just Culture Community. Retrieved May 30, 2014, from https://www.justculture.org/getting-to-know-just-culture/ Weiner, B. J., Hobgood, C., Lewis, M. A. (2008). The meaning of justice in safety incident reporting. Social Science Medicine, 66(2), 403-413.

Analysing Slavery in Mark Twains Writing

Analysing Slavery in Mark Twains Writing INTRODUCTION According to widely held view on slavery, it is has been acknowledged that it is ‘a virtually universal feature of human history that has preserved up to nowadays.   As absolute proof of old origins of slavery accounts to the fact that there are written documents survived from ancient times as written in e.g., the Code of Hammurabi and The Old Testament showing that slavery was established in the early civilizations. As to present days, the United Nations (hereafter UN) reports reveal a ‘huge   number of women, children and men being exploited and forced into slavery ranging from at least eight hundred- thousand to three million people trafficked annually. Therefore, globalization has brought not only positive cultural exchanges, but also endemic slavery around the world, raising a discussion of tackling and eliminating this painful issue. Concerning the term ‘slavery, it denotes much of negativism and violence e.g., torture, kidnap, murder, inferiority, punishment as well as ‘the wilful destruction of human mind and spirit (Bales, 2005:6). Nevertheless, the historians (Bales:2005;David:2004; Kopytoff:1977) describe that slaves throughout human history have been treated as inferior, uncivilized and bestialized e.g., Mark Twains story ‘The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn portrays the Southerners vision of   a runaway slave who is perceived as superstitious, uneducated and perhaps violent thing: merely a human in their view. This helps to explain the hostile or negative feelings, attitudes and actions towards one ethnic group of people, in this case a white persons disdain and superiority overblack person. The superiority of white or Caucasian race derives from times of slavery as the historian Kevin Bales (2005:7) states slavery can damage peoples mind, namely, (1) slaves; (2) slaveholders and (3) members of society who live this system. As to Bales (ibid), such society accepts dehumanization of a person that allow prospering slavery around the globe. Thus, we can observe that slavery has remerged not only in many different times throughout human history, but also is present in our times. This research paper aims at illustrating a link between past and present displayed in Mark Twains literary works. They reveal that slavery in the South can be perceived as a ghost of the past, which has been equally haunting African Americans and Caucasian race. As a result, the past has widened a gap between those two races in America. William Faulkner has said that ‘only with Twain, Walt Whitman became a true indigenous American culture (quoted in Hutchinson, 1998:80). Mark Twain who was born and raised in the Americas South was the pioneer of displaying the spoken language, the very American language in literature that is characterized as   vivid, but with sardonic humour, neat aphorism. It has to be mentioned that Mark Twain is regarded as a complex personality; since he managed to contradict himself not only in a real life, but also in his writings. The subject of the bachelor thesis is institution of slavery in Mark Twains works.   In other words, the paper investigates aspects and issue of slavery described in Mark Twains writings, including ‘The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884-85) and ‘A True Story, Repeated for Word, as I heard It (1874) which are set in the pre Civil War society of American South-West. The aim of the paper is to gain a comprehensive picture of slavery from Mark Twains works. The objectives of the research paper the task is to select and to review the most common images of slavery presented   in Twains writings by such   characters as   Aunt Rachel, Jim   and Huck Finn to make the use of a study of history i.e. Slavery in America , but   take into account   Mark Twains personal view on slavery to analyse the images of slavery using   the writers stories to test the results   i.e. to   compare those two different images of slavery i.e. literary works and official   history of slavery to draw the relevant conclusions taking into account both his   writings and the   historical context. Hypothesis: Mark Twains literary works imply personal responsibility and awareness on such complex issue as slavery, but problems of slavery cannot be viewed separately from historical context.   Methods of research case study: analysis of such   historical works on slavery   written by Suzzane Miers, Igor Kopytoff, Christine   Hatt,Robert McColley and others analysis of two Mark   Twains   stories Juxtaposition: to contrast and compare those two different images of slavery, namely, historical and literary description of slavery. The author of the paper has chosen the case study as a research method for a number of reasons. First of all, case study research allow us better understanding a complex issue or object and this method of study is especially useful for testing theory by using it in real world situations. Secondly, a case study is an in depth study of a particular situation. It is a method used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one easily researchable topic.   Finally, it provides a structural way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. As a result, the researcher may get a better understanding of why the event happened as it did, and what is important to look at more closely in the future. The first chapter deals with the history of racism and the concept of racism. The second chapter provides an insight into understanding of slavery and deals with the issue of institution of slavery in the USA. The third one and its subchapters deal with issues of   slavery, namely, they show how   slavery is depicted   in Twains literary work Huckleberry Finn and provide a brief insight into history of slavery in America and explores A True story and Aunts Rachel point of view of slavery. 1 THE HISTORY OF RACISM AND ITS CONCEPT This chapter deals with the history and the concept of racism. Racism is a subject that most people, at least in Western societies, have their own opinion on and it is as old as civilization, it continues to be an important factor in society today. Alana Lentin (2011) claims that racism is a political phenomenon rather than a mere set of ideas. To analyze racism it is necessary to go beyond the texts of racial scientists and to look at how certain political conditions during particular historical contexts led to some of the ideas proposed by racial theorists being integrated into political practices of nation-states. There are three aspects the political nature of racism, its modernity and its grounding in the history of the West that are fundamental to understanding racisms hold over contemporary Western societies. It is very important as well to look at the statements, what a race is. According to Ivan Hannaford (1996), the word race as used in Western languages is first found as late as the period 1200 1500. Only in the seventeenth century did it take on a separate meaning from the Latin word gens or clan and was related to the concept â€Å"ethnic group†. In other words the dispositions and presuppositions of race and ethnicity were introduced some would say â€Å"invented† or â€Å"fabricated† in modern times and in any case, were not given the meaning they have today until after the French and American revolutions. The reason why the notion of race became such a powerful and attractive idea is due to the â€Å"deliberate manipulation† of texts by scientists and historians to show that a racial order has always structured humanity (Hannaford 1996: 4). There was a definite division of the periods over which the idea of race developed. Hannaford divides it into three stages: 1684 1815, 1815 1870 and 1870 1914. The final period is known as the â€Å"Golden Age† of racism, it was a time when it was possible for the British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli to proclaim that race is all and there was no other truth. (ibid, 1996). As Alana Lentin (2011) states the word â€Å"race† was first used in its modern sense in 1684, when a Frenchman published his essay, where race stood for divisions among humans based on observable physical differences. At this stage race was used a simple descriptor and there was no intention of superiority meant by presenting humanity in this way (2011). Hannaford (1996) states that Western scholars later started to think about that it means to be human that fundamentally changed the way people thought about the origins of human life, the universe and society. It is the bases for the way we think about these things to this day. The most significant changes were in fact that theological explanations about life were replaced by logical description. (Hannaford, 1996: 187). Lentin Alan (2011) considers that many people do not ask nowadays why racism is apparently so important, despite the end of colonialism, slavery and the Holocaust, the answer is that it is natural. Racism has entered into everyday speech and therefore in our consciousness. The idea of racism is so widespread that we easily mistake it for something that is just there, a fact of life. Racism is associated with the fear and even hatred that human beings are commonly expected to have for each other. Fear based on racism is inherent and there is no need to ask why it exists (2011). As Neil Macmaster reminds us that racism is always a dynamic process, a set of beliefs and practices that is imbedded in a particular historical context, a particular social formation, and is thus continuously undergoing change, a plastic chameleon like phenomenon which constantly finds new forms of political, social, cultural or linguistic expression (2001: 2). Lentin (2011) refers to race in descriptive terms, it takes account of racionalization. Racionalization is the process through which the supposed inferiority of black, colonized and non-whites is constructed. Todays global racism divides the rich and the poor worlds and is no longer a simple black and white issue. Racionalization involves endowing the traditions and lifestyles that are attributed to groups of different â€Å"others† with negative signifiers (2011). According to Alan Lentin (2011), the development of a radicalized discourse about a group of people provides justification for their discrimination. It puts into words the very thing about a particular group that is said to disturb us and pose a threat to our way of life. The fact that racionalization and racism are repeated, affecting different groups over time, does not mean that racism is inevitable. Rather, it shows that considerable transformations of our political systems, our social and cultural infrastructur e, and our discourse the very way in which language is used needs to change if racism in Western societies is to be overcome (2011:10). Memmi (2000) investigates racism as social pathology a cultural disease that prevails because it allows one part of society to empower itself at the expense of another. For Memmi, racism emerges from within human situations, rather than simply as the enforcement of an ideology, or the â€Å"natural† belief some people have according their innate superiority. Racism is a charge, like a judicial accusation that is levied against somebody, who is indicated as being in some manner (racially) different. It implies that the other has, in being different, somehow broken certain assumed rules, and is thus not a good person. Thus the person is devalued and disparaged and he suffers from it. The indictment, however, is unfounded and unjust, and the accused is thus the victim of an injustice. As well Memmi (2000) states that in France, reference to â€Å"le raciste† in a   third person nominative mode, as to some unspecified person who behaves in a particular way, upholding cer tain ideas and attitude, would call up a more or less familiar picture, bur in the United States it would not really be as clear. It is a nation in which white racism is wholly generalized and integrated into political and social life. Though it may be invisible in everyday life, it can see by White people through accepting themselves without question as white. Thus racism moves beyond individual prejudice to engage broader questions of collective behaviour and social responsibility. As it can be seen, the topic of racism is very broad. Some people would say that racism is just based on prejudices but some would say that it is something that people are born into, and they are not able to fight against it, nor break out of their social status. People who are in such situations, are born into a situation where they do not have an unfair disadvantage when trying to move out of their social status and thus fall into a category that can make them more susceptible to racial prejudice and ideologies. The next subchapter will have a closer look at types of racism.    1.1 TYPES OF RACISM The current subchapter aims at giving additional conceptions   of   the term ‘racism as well as outlining   basic types of racism proposed by several authorities(Reilly, Kaufman, Bodino:2003)(Fredrickson:2002). The given section suggests that there is obvious correlation between racism and slavery. The website on racism ‘Anti-Defamation League defines racism as ‘the belief that a particular race is superior or inferior to another as well as that a persons social and moral traits are predetermined by his or her inborn biological characteristics. According to Reilly, Kaufman and Bodino (2003:9), race has no basic biological reality, because all we see is just a colour or different texture of hair or shape of eyes, but it does not have any decisive influence over a persons intelligence or other traits. As a result, ‘misconceptions about race have lead to forms of racism that have caused much social, psychological and social harm (Reilly et.al.2003:10). Additionally, Frederickson points out (2002:1) that ‘racism that is the antipathy of one group towards another that ‘can be expressed and acted upon with a single mindedness and brutality. Nevertheless, the same experts describe racism as prejudice or discrimination against other people because of their race, due to their biology or ancestry and physical appearance. This pattern is clearly visible in Twains work ‘The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn when a slave named Jim runs away from his owner, whereas the whole city spreads out the rumours about him having killed Hucks father. Their assumption is based on prejudice that all black people are savages, violent and ca not be trusted. Thus, their attitude towards, slaves can be described as racism, because they judged those people, due to their ancestry and physical appearance. Although the term racism first came into common usage in 1930ies (as stated in the book ‘A Racism: a short history) (Fredercikson, 2002:5), the act of discrimination is still there i.e. while reading   Twains literary works we can perceive how coloured people were treated in the American South. This attitude or and approach of white superiority overwhelm the Southern society at the time when Huck Finn was embarking in his famous adventures on Mississippi river. A great deal of harm has been done to generations and in this particular case to Jim, Aunt Rachel and Huck Finn. The pain and burden of slavery of these characters are depicted in chapter three. As to types of racism, the website on American Research and Geography called ‘Amerigis provides detailed information on types of racism. The types are as follows: Historical, Scientific, New, Spatial, Institutional, Internalized and Individual. The online resource stated above claims that racism looks different today from it did thirty years ago. The author of the current paper finds important to mention that racism back in 19th century was blatant and caused so much pain and injustice to black race. Thus, the graduate proposes the idea that discrimination and injustice has derived from the time when slavery was acceptable even more it was the cornerstone of the Souths vision of sound social order.   The author of BA thesis asserts that such blatant discrimination has never been experienced in human history as it was back in early 19th century; it was the root of all evil caused to black race. The classification of racism is based on several resources such as the Internet resource mentioned above, and three publications on racism The types are as follows: Cultural racism According to Belgrave et al(2010:104)   cultural racism is expressed as assumed superiority of a language or dialect, values, beliefs, worldviews and cultural   heritage e.g., in the novel ‘Huckleberry Finn the slave named Jim is regarded as superstitious person whose beliefs and values are regarded as infantile   even compare to young white   lad like Tom Sawyer. Individual Racism The same scholar (ibid) explains that individual racism has the same meaning and features as of racial prejudice i.e. it assumes the superiority of ones own racial group and justifies its domination and power over other race. For example, when Pap Finn gets all furious about a ‘white shirted free nigger to right to vote, because he holds the view that black   race has no right to   freedom nor participate in elections.   As he states ‘they told me there was a State in this country where theyd let that nigger vote, [ thus he determines ] , ‘Ill never vote agin as long as I live. Institutional Racism The Internet source ‘American research and geographic information system point to „white privilege† that frequently is hidden, because it has become internalized and integrated as part of ones outlook on the world by custom, habit and tradition. For example,   concerning antebellum society in the South of America if a white person helps a runaway slave towards freedom, ‘and in doing so he violets the laws of man, and he believes the laws of God (Hutchinson, 1998:130). The fact of helping slave that according to the Southerner rules is a deadly sin that sends a sinner into flames of hell. This points out that the church played a great role in peoples lives whereas any person who would disobey the given rule would be perceived as danger to their moral social order in the South. As a result, the southern upbringing does not allow Huck Finn to show his sympathy towards Jim, a runaway slave. Slavery functioned as main social moral and religious issue in the South. The preceding sentences and extracts from Twains writings show that social order had a tremendous impact over members of the Southern society at the given time.   Nevertheless, at that time there were no subtle forms or hidden ways of showing ones hate towards other race, unlike today where many people express their hate via the Internet. On the contrary, it was impossible to show sympathy towards a slave e.g., the runway slave Jim who has abused the system and has sinned against the owner Miss Watson, arises the question to Huck whether he deserves his freedom. Additionally The psychologists Bhattacharya, Cross, Bhugra (2010:41) also give the classification racism based on the analysis of human behavior under certain circumstances, namely, being   exposed to people of other ethnicities in our global world. The author of the BA thesis will highlight the types which can be found in the following works ‘The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and ‘A True Story, Repeated for Word, as I heard It dominative when a person acts out;   aversive when a person feels superior , but is unable to act; regressive when a personsdue to his or her view on racism behaves regressively; pre-reflecting when a person has fear of strangers; post reflecting when a person justifies his fear of strangers; The study on racism shows that it involves biased judgments on humans and their action e.g., racist determines what is good, correct, beautiful, sane, normal. Nevertheless, the historians and other experts of this field (Fredercikson, 2002), (Reilly, Kaufman, Bodino: 2003), (Carol: 1987) agree upon the view that   racism and the same slavery is seen as ideology, as practice as social structure. Whereas, Mark Twains writings reflect on slavery as doctrine, practice and social cornerstone of the America South in antebellum society that has brought so much injustice and pain, as well. The next subchapter will explore the ideology of racism. 1.2 IDEOLOGY OF RACISM The chapter gives an insight into the ideology of racism as it is an important matter discussed, portrayed in history books and literature. Ideology is a body of beliefs that drives the goals and expectations of an individual or a group. According to Martin N. Marger (2006) â€Å"As a belief system, or ideology, racism is structured around three basic ideas: Humans are divided naturally into different physical types. Such physical traits as people display are intrinsically related to their culture, personality, and intelligence. The differences among groups are innate, not subject to change, and in the basis of their genetic inheritance, some groups are innately superior to others† (Marger 2006:19). Thus, racism is a belief that people are divided into hereditary groups that are different in their social behaviour. Racist thinking states that differences among groups are innate.   Carol Brunson argues that â€Å"the ideology of racism prescribes the parameters for perceiving social reality thereby defining guidelines for â€Å"desirable† interracial behaviour. Once the members of society are imbued with racist thinking, they will not only perceive their institutions as natural, they will voluntarily carry out institutional mandates as of they are a function of their own individual choice† (Carol Brunson, 1987:17). According to the authors of the books on the ideology of race it can be seen that it is powerful and it persists in different forms of expression. Robert Miles work â€Å"Racism† is an essential reminder that racism is the object of ideological and discursive labouring. Robert Miles argues â€Å"Racism is best conceived primarily as an ideology for at least one other reason. Racism, qua ideology, was created historically and became interdependent with the ideology of nationalism. The argument that racism is a form of ideology is important and worth repeating† (Robert Miles, 2003:10). When it comes to ideological components assumptions of racism, Carol Brunson holds the following viewpoint: â€Å"Racist institutions not only create the structural conditions for racism, but also create a culturally sanctioned ideology that keeps the system operating. Racist ideology is a set of notions that ascribe central importance to real or presumed biological, cultural, and psychological differences among racial groups, attributing the arrangement of both historic and current social systems to these differences† (Carol Brunson, 1987:15). While ideological and cultural arguments are two pillars that support racism, one or other may be in the forefront at any given time. Stephen Gould states two assumptions of biologically based racist ideology: Humans are classifiable into discrete, hierarchically ranked biological groups (with whites at the top). Differences among the races reflect the natural and/or ordained order and therefore are eternally fixed (Gould, 1981:45). Besides this biological argument, there exists also cultural argument, explaining the realities of the lives of people of colour. William Ryan (1976) defined blaming the victim as an ideological stance that locates the origins of social problems. Ryan identified four steps in victim blaming process. Locating social problem and population affected by it, comparison of values and behaviour of people affected by the social problem, locating the source off the problem in how the affected people are different from the successful ones, initiation of treatment that would change the affected people (Ryan, 1976).Victim blaming therefore provides a framework for explaining the problems of people of colour. It is also a framework for strategies to ameliorate the position of people of colour in our society.   Many people learn about the ideology of racism and families, schools and media contribute to this education. They learn and behave according to the dictates of racist ideology. Carol Brun son argues that very early, children of all backgrounds learn stereotypes about other groups regardless of whether they have contact with actual people (Carol Brunson, 1987:18). These stereotypes later shape peoples reality and they start judging and interpreting ideas and behaviours by their learnt stereotypes. Each persons own judgement is not harmful but over time the prejudices may become poisonous and damaging.   As it can be seen, there appear new arguments of racism and its ideology, justifying institutional, cultural and individual racism. While these new faces and arguments of racism try to cover the problem, racism and racist ideology are alive and existent in America. Racism affects us as individuals and the choices that we make in responding to it. Anti-racism education should require an immediate focus on each individual. The goal of the anti-racism education should be generation of development of individual consciousness, enabling people to become active initiators of the change in perception of racism. All people should be responsible for transformation of racism ideology. However, the situation is difficult because, while groups keep racism alive, the responsibility is not equally positioned. Yet, racism has always gone hand in hand with slavery, and it is a precedent to slavery. Racism is evil. It is not a social problem that will gradually disappear through education and legislation. These alleviate the symptoms, but no more than that. The only cure is in understanding that evil is real. In the words of Jeffrey Burton Russell, The essence of evil is abuse of a sentient being, a being that can feel pain. It is the pain that matters. Evil is grasped by the mind immediately and immediately felt by the emotions; it is sensed as hurt deliberately inflicted. The existence of evil requires no further proof: I am; therefore I suffer evil. The definition implies two things: One, that every human being suffers evil. Two, every human being inflicts evil. Thus, the essence of the human condition is in how we live with evil. Of necessity, then, evil has two faces one is individual, the other is collective. That we as individuals will and do commit evil is unavoidable. Our efforts not to do evil, however, need the support of a collective, i.e. a society that not only recognizes evil but condemns it. In contemporary America, In her Gifford lectures, Hannah Arendt said: As citizens, we must prevent wrong-doing because the world in which we all live, wrong-doer, wrong-sufferer, and spectator, is at stake; the City has been wronged.We could almost define a crime as that transgression of the law that demands punishment regardless of the one who has been wronged.the law of the land permits no option because it is the community as a whole that has been violated. America is struggling to reach a consensus that racism violates the community as a whole. It cannot do so as long as blacks are still excluded from a sense of community. Blacks have no doubts or questions about their humanity and thus are made to suffer evil, an evil that is still not obvious to the white majority. Racism is an act of evil but white people do not hear the moaning of the wounded or the death rattles of the dying. The evil of slavery, the evil of the Holocaust are written large. So much so that many are in danger of thinking that these cataclysms are the only ways in which racist evil expresses itself. That is why it is both ironic and maddening that so many blacks equate anti-Semitism only with the Holocaust and thereby conclude that because they would never condone the extermination of Jews they are not and could not be anti-Semitic. Non-blacks are equally culpable when they equate racism solely with acts of violence. Because our perception of evil is limited to the dramatic, we have lost the capacity to recognize it. Evil has become so prosaic in appearance, manner and style that it is now woven into the fabric of the normal like smog, acid rain and K-mart. Hannah Arendt maintained that the horror of evil in the Third Reich was that it had lost the quality by which most people recognize it the quality of temptation. The racist evil of contemporary America is as charismatic as an empty can of cat food. In her Gifford lectures, Hannah Arendt attempted again to describe the figure of Adolf Eichmann and what had so horrified her about him: I was struck by a manifest shallowness in the doer that made it impossible to trace the incontestable evil of his deeds to any deeper level of roots or motives. The deeds were monstrous, but the doerwas quite ordinary, commonplace, and neither demonic nor monstrous. There was no sign in him of firm ideological convictions or of specific evil motives, and the only noble characteristic one could detect in his past behavior as well as his behavior during the trialwas something entirely negative: it was not stupidity but thoughtlessness.It was this absence of thinking which is so ordinary an experience in our everyday life, where we have hardly the time, let alone the inclination to stop and think that awakened my interest. Is evildoing (the sins of omission, as well as the sins of commission) possible in default of not just base motivesbut of any motives whatever, of any particular prompting of interest or volition? Is wickedness, however we may define itnot a necessary condition for evil- doing? What Arendt saw in Eichmann is true of American society. This is not a country of wicked white people imbued with a virulent racism based on some principle or other. What exists is far more distressing. Racism has become a psychological habit, a habit many wish to dislodge, but it is so ingrained that they do not know where to begin. It is imperative, however, that they look, for as Goethe wrote in Wilhem Meister, every sin avenges itself on earth. Where they must look is in themselves. Whites cannot feel the pain of blacks, Jews and women until they feel the pain they inflict on themselves by passively accepting a definition of Order that crowns whites as racially superior beings. I do not know why whites do not feel the evil they inflict on themselves because I see the evil of racism taking its revenge on a drug-addicted white society which did not care forty years ago when drugs appeared in black slums. If America had been able to feel then that black life is human, if America had been able to feel that racism is a silent evil inflicting pain as murderous to the human spirit as any weapon is to the body, it would have been alarmed and moved to alleviate the conditions that made drugs appear to be a viable alternative. If America had been able to conceive that black life is human life, thousands of white and black lives would not have been destroyed, literally and psychologically, since drugs entered white American society. I do not understand why white America cannot understand this simple principle: Everything white people do to black people, they will eventually do to each other.   The ultimate evil of racism is not in its effects, but in the inability of white people to recognize themselves in black people. This evil will continue until white people take responsibility for that which they wish was not within them, namely, evil. Ultimately, we must accept that evil is, that it is not something out there but something in here. It cannot be expunged because our humanity lies as much in our capacity to evil as

Philosophy of Education :: Philosophy of Teaching Statement

Philosophy of Education Webster defines philosophy as a critical study of fundamental beliefs and the grounds for them. In this philosophy, I will be talking about the three great philosophers: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. These three philosophers represent the birthplace of Western philosophy. Socrates, which is synonymous with wisdom and the philosophical life, was a teacher without a school. His goal was to help others find the truths that lie within their own minds. He helped his students reach deeper, clearer ideas by questioning, disproving, and testing the thoughts of his pupils. His teachings offended many of the powerful people of his time. They believed he was corrupting the youth in Athens. Since he believed and taught in this way, he was executed. Plato, a student of Socrates, followed in his teachings. After returning to Athens, he founded The Academy, considered by some to be the world’s first university. In Plato’s philosophy the human soul has three parts: intellect, spirit, and appetite. He felt that these three aspects interacted to determine human behavior. He urged that intellect be trained to control spirit and appetite. Aristotle was the student under Plato. He came to Plato’s Academy at the age of 18 and stayed for 20 years until the death of Plato. He went to northern Greece and taught Alexander the Great. After educating Alexander, he returned to Athens and set up his own school, the Lyceum. Aristotle placed more emphasis on the physical world than did Plato. He wrote works on biology, physics, astronomy, just to name a few. But, he is also renowned for his ethical and political theories. He thought the highest good for people was a virtuous life. By thinking this, he promoted the doctrine of the Golden Mean.

breast cancer Essay -- essays research papers

Breast Cancer   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women. The American cancer society estimates that in 2002 about 192,200 new cases of breast cancer will be diagnosed among women in the U.S. alone. Breast cancer also occurs in men. An estimated 1,500 cases will be diagnosed among men. In 2002, there will be about 40,600 deaths from breast cancer in the United States.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What is breast cancer? Breast cancer is a malignant tumor that has developed from cells of the breast. To make it easier I’ll put it this way. When the body needs new cells they will divide or reproduce. Sometimes the cells grow and divide out of control, which creates a mass of tissue called a tumor. Now if the cells that are growing out of control are abnormal and don’t function like the body’s normal cells the tumor is then called malignant or cancerous. Cells from the malignant tumors can invade and damage nearby tissues and organs. They may also travel through your blood stream or lymph system to other parts of your body. If the cells are normal cells the tumor is called benign or non cancerous. This Disease occurs mostly in women, but dose occur rarely in men. There are many stages of breast cancer. Stage 0 breast cancer is when the disease is localized to the breast and lymph nodes. Stage 1 is when the cancer is smaller than 1 inch across and hasn’t spread. Stage II is one of the following: the tumor is less than one inch but has spread to the underarm lymph nodes or the tumor is between 1-2 inches without spreading. Advanced breast cancer results after cancer cells spreads to the lymph nodes and to other parts of the body. Stage III breast cancer is also called locally advanced breast cancer. The tumor is now larger than 2 inches and has spread to the lymph nodes under the arm, or a tumor that is any size with cancerous lymph nodes that attach to each other or surrounding tissue.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Stage IIIB breast cancer is a tumor of any size that has spread to the Skin, Chest wall or internal mammary lymph nodes, which are located beneath the breast and inside the chest.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Stage IV breast cancer is defined as a tumor that has spread to places far away from the breast, such as bones, lungs or lymph nodes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are... ... no way to prevent breast cancer but there are a ton of things you can do to help reduce your risks of getting it. You should always eat foods high in fiber. Fiber helps reduce the amount of circulating estrogen in your body. Eat plenty of fruits and vegetables, also include soy in your diet. Studies say that soy may inhibit the development and growth of cancer cells. Limit the fat in your diet, limit alcohol, and stay physically active. The Nurses Health Study found that women who exercise for at least 1 hour a day reduce their breast cancer risk by 18 %. You should also maintain a healthy weight and avoid exposure to pesticides. Because the molecular structure of some pesticides closely resembles that of estrogen. This means that they might attach to receptor sights in you body. It is known that women with high levels of pesticides in their breast tissue have a greater breast cancer risk.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although there are many different things that go along with breast cancer. This paper really helped me understand more about the subject and helped me know some of the signs that I need to look for and ways to help me reduce the risks of getting breast cancer.

AP Essay -- essays papers

A&P In the story â€Å"A&P† by John Updike, the main character Sammy is portrayed as a typical young male. When the three young females enter the store, he is quickly distracted from his duties. As he watches the young girls move throughout the store, he describes each of their bodies in detail giving away his overwhelming sexual awareness. Sammy is so distracted by these â€Å"bathing beauties† that he rings up some old bat’s item twice and makes her angry. It is made quite evident that Sammy is finely attuned to each and every movement of these young ladies’ as they amble down each and every aisle throughout the store. Sammy’s carnal mindedness is first made apparent in the story when he describes the â€Å"chunky one† in her green, two-piece bathing suit. Sammy describes this girl as having â€Å"a good tan and a sweet broad soft-looking can with those two creasants of white just under it, where the sun never seems to hit, at the top of the back of her legs† (Updike 369). Sammy’s hormones kick into overdrive when he sets his eyes upon this girl’s overly fleshy backside. Sammy states that he likes what he sees even though this chic is chunky and her butt is soft and wide. It is quite clear that Sammy has a fetish of some sort with big â€Å"cans† when he refers to the girl as â€Å"the plump one in plaid, that I liked better from the back-a really sweet can† (Updike 372). Next Sammy focuses his attention on the tall, black haired girl. He views this young lady as pretty but not beautiful-â€Å"the kind of girl other girls think is very â€Å"striking† and â€Å"attractive† but never quite makes it† (Updike 370). Sammy’s sexual interest in this young female is described very overtly as he states â€Å"not that as raw material she was so bad† (Updike 373... ... the towel† and follow these affluent broads. As he looks at Queenie’s breasts that he describes as â€Å"the two smoothest scoops of vanilla I had even known were there† (Updike 373), Sammy makes his final decision to quit. It is evident that he did this in hopes to impress these women by the way in which he loudly announces his resignation to the manager. This was Sammy’s last, pitiful attempt to get these rich girls to notice him and take him to their world of utopia. Sammy soon realized that these girls either did not hear what he said, or may have heard and did not give a rip or even notice that he existed. At this point, I believe he felt like an idiot. The realization of the stupidity of his action is acknowledged by Sammy at the end of the story when he states that â€Å"his stomach kind of fell as I felt how hard the world was going to be to me hereafter† (Updike 373).

Positive Psychology and Kindness

Assessment 1 – Personal Reflection and Sharing / Celebrating with others Happy people become happier through kindness intervention. The relationship between the character strength of kindness and subjective happiness, and the effects of a counting kindnesses intervention on subjective happiness Happy people to perform on their motivation, recognition and enactment of kind behaviors. They have more happy memories in daily life in terms of both quantity and quality. Subjective happiness was increased simply by counting one's own acts of kindness for one week.Happy people became more kind and grateful through the counting kindnesses intervention. Compared with less happy people, happy people have better social relationships and more pleasant everyday lives. For example, very happy people have highly satisfying relationships with friends, romantic partners, and family members and that, compared to their less happy peers, they report more positive events and emotions in their daily lives relative to negative ones. Happy people are more extraverted, more agreeable, and less neurotic.Some studies have shown that subjective happiness is one of the key factors in subjective well-being and overall satisfaction with life. Therefore I expected that in addition to the strength of gratitude, the strength of kindness would also play an important role in increasing subjective happiness. Gratitude is an important human strengths that contributes to subjective happiness, especially appreciative of the contribution of others to their happiness. I suggest that grateful persons would further be characterized by the appreciation of life's simple pleasures.These imply reciprocal relationships among gratitude, subjective happiness, and good social relationships. Consequently, compared with unhappy people, happy people report close and satisfying relationships and feel more gratitude in their lives. Gratitude when people receive kindness form other people, kindness entails enact ing kind behavior toward other people. In personal mindset, how to act of kindness can be expressed in countless ways? A warm hello said to a stranger, giving money to those in need, allowing cars to merge into traffic†¦ all of these are acts of kindness.Kindness may be best expressed as a state of mind. With the holiday season over, and many of us feeling the effects of a far-reaching world disaster, understanding how kindness can help is very important. People you help can see the direct result of your actions, and people who witness your gestures can be touched by what you do. From giving money and time, to the way in which you communicate with friends, family, and co-workers, the ripple effect of kindness is far-reaching.It is easy to think that kindness is only a â€Å"one-way street†, but kindness can go both ways. Giving, in and of itself, can be a great reward, but how is the giver affected? The giver can be rewarded in many areas, both psychologically and physic ally. It would be impossible to list every way that kindness can be shown or given. Being attuned to situations where you can help almost becomes a â€Å"state of mind† or â€Å"attitude† that you can live by. Start by making a list of areas where you can help.This may include giving to a helping organization, such as a local homeless shelter, food-bank, or a national/ international organization. With the natural disaster in the Far East dominating what we see on the evening news, perhaps you could start by identifying national or international organizations that could use your financial donations. You can even look to your community for places that could use your donations or volunteer time, such as visiting patients in a nursing home or hospital ward.Or, for some of this writer's favorites: start with the everyday little things that offer surprises and make people in your nearby community wonder what simple yet amazing acts of kindness are running amok and to get you started, I have listed some ideas below * Pay for the person's order behind you in the drive-through line. * Make eye contact with the person who rings up your groceries and really look at them when you say, â€Å"Have a really great evening. Thank you†. * Compliment at least 2 people every day. * Contrast someone being well mannered and kind, with someone being rude. Send someone a hand written note of thanks * Buy a lottery or Charitable organizations ticket for a stranger. * Give a compliment about your waiter or waitress to his or her manager. * Stop and help someone replace their flat tyre on high-speed road. * Let someone jump the queue at the bank. * Let someone jump the wallets or valuables at the police office. * Treat a friend to the movies for no reason. * Give up your seat for someone, not just an elderly person and pregnancy women. * Talk to a homeless person and have a â€Å"normal† conversation. * Pick up some rubbish in the road which would otherwise b e lying around. Compliment a work colleague for their excellence. * Tell all your family members how much your appreciate them. * Leave a copy of an interesting book on a train. * Buy an inspirational book for a friend. * Send a thank you note to a person who has helped you in the past. * Smile a lot. Kindness is contagious – and as part of Personal Socially Responsibility you might want to consider carrying out random acts of kindness on a daily basis. It is truly a win/win/win situation. The person you are being kind to benefits through your help. You feel good for having helped someone.And the world is a better place through your kindness. Never underestimate the impact of a single act of kindness. I still remember, after many years, the time someone stopped and helped me after my car had broken down in high-speed road. Since then, I have stopped on the road myself and helped stranded motorists a number of times. All because of that single act of kindness by a stranger. Th e implications of kindness are far reaching. Showing kindness even on a small level is a great start. Also, it is important to carry out your acts of kindness without expecting anything in return has its own rewards. 1013 words

How ROTC Builds Character and Leadership

Enrolling into Junior ROTC most don't really know what to expect, all they moss likely think is that it â€Å"will make them more popular to wear a uniform†. It does NT take very long to realize that the program is so much more than just uniforms. OR ETC provides cadets with life changing skills that strengthen character and leaders hip, and allows them to expand and find who they are. The ROTC program teaches cadets the importance of respect, obedience, trust t, and other traits needed to live and give out positive benefits in the world.Thro cough seasons of self discovery, the want to change one's flaws and keep successful ha bits becomes a main goal to reach. Becoming higher in rank motivates cadets to b behave in ways that show others what it means to be a ROTC cadet, and encourage 20th errs to reach beyond â€Å"just satisfaction†. The most important character trait in ROTC would most definitely have to be leadership. Through principles of loyalty, duty, and respec t cadets learn and demonstrate the ability to take charge and encourage others to do their great est..In order to have a position of leadership, an individual has to have a high level of attendance and cooperation, so that they can assist others in achieving goals. Some have trouble seeing the difference between leading and controlling, and what will benefit t he group rather than themselves. The individuals with the high level of patience, cope ration and teamwork skills are the best leaders, who bring success and respect upon the messes from others. Today's constant change in society, shows that ROTC gives positive contributions for young people to carry on. Junior ROTC takes in young cadets , and releases them as better citizens.Those individuals in the future will be import ant for the world to continue the values of character and leadership. Was one who thought I'd become more popular with given a uniform. I found out that the uniforms teach you to have confidence in yourself, to show how moot voted and dedicated you are in becoming a better citizen, and to show that being popular r isn't as important as it may seem. If it wasn't for my Junior ROTC family I'd still be the shy, no confidence, constant trouble maker I once was. We stick together in everything g, and try our best to spread our positive behavior beyond the classroom.